John Locke Would Give America to Foreign Laborers

A Preamble to the 'Everything Libertarians Believe Is Wrong' series

What would John Locke, the philosopher who laid the groundwork for modern liberal democracy, think of America’s reliance on foreign labor? In an era when debates about immigration and labor policies dominate public discourse, Locke’s theories on property and governance offer a fascinating lens for exploration. His belief that labor is the foundation of property and his vision of governments as protectors of contributors to the common good provide a unique framework for understanding these modern issues.

Locke’s labor theory of property argues that individuals gain ownership by investing their labor into resources, transforming them into something valuable (Locke, 1689). This principle places significant weight on the contributions of laborers in shaping society. Similarly, his concept of the social contract suggests that those who participate in and sustain a society have an implicit claim to its protections and benefits. Though centuries old, these ideas resonate with the ongoing discussions about foreign laborers in the United States, who play a critical role in various economic sectors.

It remains unclear whether Locke’s principles align with contemporary immigration policies and their ethical implications. However, revisiting his philosophy can help us better understand the intersections of labor, property, and governance in today’s globalized society.

Locke’s Philosophy of Property and Labor

The Labor Theory of Property

John Locke’s labor theory of property is one of his most well-known contributions to political philosophy. Locke argued that property ownership arises when an individual invests their labor into natural resources, transforming them into something of value (Locke, 1689). For example, in his Second Treatise of Government, Locke states, “Whatsoever, then, he removes out of the state that nature hath provided and left it in, he hath mixed his labor with, and joined to it something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property” (Locke, 1689, p. 19).

This principle suggests a deep connection between labor and the creation of rights, placing value on human effort as the foundation of ownership. Applying this concept to modern contexts, foreign laborers in the United States contribute significantly to the agriculture, construction, and healthcare industries. Their work transforms raw potential into economic productivity, arguably mirroring Locke’s vision of labor as the source of value and legitimacy.

Labor as a Fundamental Value

Locke viewed labor as a means of survival and a fundamental driver of societal advancement. He believed that labor enhances communal wealth, stating, “The greatest part of things beneficial to the life of man is the product of labor” (Locke, 1689, p. 24). This perspective underscores the broader societal importance of work as a transformative force.

Foreign laborers exemplify this principle through their contributions to essential sectors of the economy. Research indicates that immigrant workers disproportionately occupy vital roles, such as caregiving and food production, which are crucial to sustaining societal welfare (Kerwin & Warren, 2021). These contributions align with Locke’s emphasis on labor as a value and societal growth pillar.

The Concept of "Enough and as Good"

Locke’s philosophy also limits property acquisition. He argued that individuals could claim ownership only if they left “enough and as good” resources for others (Locke, 1689, p. 21). This ethical boundary suggests that resource use should not come at the expense of broader societal well-being.

In debates about immigration and labor, critics often contend that foreign laborers compete for limited resources or opportunities. However, Locke’s principle implies that creating value through labor expands resources rather than depleting them. Modern economic studies support this notion, showing that immigrant laborers often fill labor shortages and contribute to GDP growth, creating net societal benefits (Peri, 2020).

Locke’s Social Contract and the Role of Government

Government’s Obligation to the Common Good

John Locke’s concept of the social contract posits that governments are formed to protect the natural rights of their citizens, particularly life, liberty, and property (Locke, 1689). He emphasized that governance is only legitimate when it serves the common good. In Locke’s words, “The great and chief end…of men uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property” (Locke, 1689, p. 65).

This principle can be extended to foreign laborers who contribute significantly to the common good. Research shows that immigrant workers support industries such as agriculture and healthcare and contribute billions in taxes annually, funding public services like education and infrastructure (Blau & Mackie, 2017). From Locke’s perspective, governments may be obligated to protect and recognize these contributors, as their labor benefits the broader society.

Immigration and the "Tacit Consent" Argument

Locke’s idea of tacit consent offers another lens for examining immigration. He argued that individuals who participate in and benefit from a government’s protections implicitly consent to its authority. In Locke’s framework, participation in a society’s economic or social systems forms a bond between the individual and the state (Locke, 1689).

Through their work and contributions, foreign laborers could be seen as having provided this tacit consent. For instance, unauthorized immigrant workers in the United States contributed approximately $12 billion to the Social Security Trust Fund in 2019 despite being ineligible to receive its benefits (Goss et al., 2016). This dynamic raises questions about their inclusion within Locke’s social contract: should they not also enjoy its protections if they fulfill societal obligations and bolster public welfare?

Locke’s Moral Justification for Welcoming Foreign Labor

The Universality of Natural Rights

Central to Locke’s philosophy is the belief that natural rights—life, liberty, and property—are universal and not bound by geography or social status. He writes, “Reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions” (Locke, 1689, p. 4). This principle suggests that foreign laborers seeking opportunities in the United States exercise these universal rights to improve their circumstances.

For instance, many foreign laborers migrate to escape economic hardship or political instability, seeking better lives for themselves and their families. Studies show that labor migration benefits both the individuals and the host nations, enhancing economic growth and productivity (Clemens, 2011). While Locke did not directly address immigration, his emphasis on equality and the universality of natural rights implies a moral justification for allowing individuals to pursue opportunities beyond their borders.

Ethical Obligation to Global Prosperity

Locke’s writings also suggest an ethical responsibility to ensure societal equity and justice. He argued that the earth’s resources benefit humanity: “The earth and all that is therein, is given to men for the support and comfort of their being” (Locke, 1689, p. 25). This principle can be interpreted as advocating for the fair distribution of resources, including labor opportunities.

In the modern context, foreign laborers often fill critical gaps in healthcare and agriculture, which is essential to national well-being (Peri, 2020). By providing these opportunities, host countries address their workforce needs and contribute to global economic stability. Locke’s philosophy of shared benefit suggests that creating pathways for foreign labor can align with the broader goal of advancing societal prosperity.

Counterarguments and Locke’s Probable Responses

Argument Against Open Labor Policies

Critics of open labor policies often raise concerns about resource allocation, job competition, and cultural identity. They argue that admitting foreign laborers may strain public services, reduce employment opportunities for native workers, and challenge societal cohesion. For example, research suggests that some labor market segments might experience downward wage pressure due to immigration (Borjas, 2017).

Additionally, concerns about cultural identity often feature prominently in arguments against increased immigration. Opponents argue that preserving a nation’s cultural or social fabric may require limiting the influx of individuals from different backgrounds. These concerns reflect broader debates about the balance between inclusion and national interests.

Locke’s Likely Rebuttal

Locke’s writings offer several counterarguments to these criticisms. First, his labor theory of property suggests that labor creates new value, expanding the wealth and resources available to society. Locke argues that “he who appropriates land to himself by his labor, does not lessen, but increase[s] the common stock of mankind” (Locke, 1689, p. 23). In this sense, foreign laborers are not simply consuming resources but actively contributing to their creation and growth.

Second, Locke’s "enough and as good" principle implies that equitable resource sharing does not detract from societal well-being but enhances it. Modern economic studies support this view, indicating that immigrant laborers fill critical workforce gaps, contribute to GDP growth, and create complementary opportunities for native workers (Blau & Mackie, 2017).

Finally, Locke’s emphasis on equality and universal natural rights challenges arguments prioritizing cultural preservation over inclusivity. His philosophy suggests that societies flourish when they recognize all individuals' inherent value and dignity, regardless of origin. This perspective aligns with the idea that foreign laborers, through their contributions, strengthen rather than undermine their host countries' social and economic fabric.

Modern Implications of Locke’s Philosophy

Economic Contributions of Foreign Labor in the U.S.

Foreign laborers play a significant role in the U.S. economy, particularly in industries where domestic labor supply falls short. Locke’s principle that labor creates value finds a clear parallel in the contributions of immigrant workers. For instance, agricultural production in the United States relies heavily on foreign labor, with immigrant workers comprising over 50% of the workforce in some regions (Martin, 2022). Similarly, healthcare and construction industries benefit from immigrant laborers filling essential roles that sustain economic growth.

Studies also show that immigrant workers do more than meet immediate labor shortages—contribute to long-term economic expansion. Research indicates that immigration increases productivity, enhances innovation, and creates complementary job opportunities for native workers (Peri, 2020). These findings align with Locke’s assertion that labor enriches society and generates shared prosperity.

Addressing Workforce Shortages

Locke’s pragmatic approach to addressing societal needs would likely extend to modern workforce shortages. Like many developed nations, the U.S. faces an aging population and declining birth rates, creating gaps in the labor market that immigrant workers help to fill. For example, nearly 17% of healthcare workers in the U.S. are immigrants, and their contributions became particularly evident during the COVID-19 pandemic (Blau & Mackie, 2017).

Locke’s philosophy emphasizes that governments have a duty to ensure the well-being of their citizens. By facilitating immigration to address labor deficits, nations fulfill their responsibility to promote societal stability and economic health. This aligns with Locke’s vision of governance as a tool for collective benefit.

Building a More Inclusive Society

Locke’s concept of the social contract suggests that all contributors to society, regardless of origin, deserve recognition and inclusion. Programs that provide pathways to citizenship for immigrant workers reflect this principle, integrating laborers into the political and social framework they help sustain. Research shows that such policies improve economic outcomes and enhance social cohesion (Clemens, 2011).

Locke’s emphasis on shared labor and mutual benefit provides a philosophical foundation for building inclusive societies. Foreign laborers, through their work and contributions, exemplify Locke’s vision of a community strengthened by collective effort.

Reflection on the Above

John Locke’s philosophy, centered on the value of labor, the universality of natural rights, and the obligations of governance, provides a unique perspective on the role of foreign labor in the United States. His labor theory of property emphasizes that labor transforms resources into value, a concept that parallels the contributions of immigrant workers to key sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, and technology. Locke’s principles also suggest that those who participate in and sustain a society have an implicit claim to its protections and benefits, raising questions about the inclusion and recognition of foreign laborers within the social contract.

Locke’s vision of governance as a tool to protect and promote the common good aligns with the argument that governments should acknowledge the contributions of immigrant workers. His “enough and as good” principle further suggests that sharing resources equitably strengthens rather than weakens societal foundations. However, applying Locke’s ideas to contemporary immigration debates also reveals tensions, particularly regarding resource competition and cultural identity, which Locke himself did not explicitly address.

As immigration continues to shape economic and social landscapes, Locke’s emphasis on labor, equity, and the collective good offers a framework for rethinking policies. Whether his ideas justify expanded opportunities for foreign laborers or suggest limitations on their inclusion remains an open question, reflecting the complexities of applying 17th-century principles to modern realities.

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References

• Blau, F. D., & Mackie, C. (Eds.). (2017). The economic and fiscal consequences of immigration. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

• Clemens, M. A. (2011). Economics and emigration: Trillion-dollar bills on the sidewalk? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(3), 83–106. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.25.3.83

• Goss, S. C., Wade, A. H., Skirvin, J. P., Morris, M. L., Bye, B. V., & Huston, R. (2016). Effects of unauthorized immigration on the actuarial status of the Social Security Trust Funds. Social Security Administration, Actuarial Note, 2016(3).

• Locke, J. (1689). Two Treatises of Government.

• Martin, P. (2022). Migrant labor in agriculture: Trends and challenges. Agricultural Economics, 53(1), 1–8.

• Peri, G. (2020). The impact of immigration on U.S. wages and employment. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 36(3), 536–558.